Academic Positions & Titles - PhD & Postdoc

Austria

PhD Candidates (so-called PräDoc-Assistenten) are typically employed as university assistants (if financed by the University they are called Universitätsassistent) or as project assistant (financed by grants, funds or industrial cooperation) at the institute of their academic supervisor. Their employment contracts are usually issued for four years and cannot be extended (in the case of employment as Universitätsassistent). However, in case PhD Candidates are employed as project assistant, contract extensions might be possible, depending on their funding source. Their duties include support in teaching, administrative tasks and doing research. PhD Candidates can also be financed by scholarships which are funded by national or local authorities, industry or others. Scholarship holders are on average funded for a period of three years. They do not have any teaching or administrative duties and can focus only on their thesis. Finally, there are also self-funded PhD students, doing their research in parallel to their “normal” work.

For Postdoctoral Researchers (PostDoc-Assistenten) a similar system applies. Depending on their funding source they are employed as university assistant (postdoc Universitätsassistent) or project assistant. Contracts of postdoc Universitätsassitenten are fixed for four up to a maximum of six years and cannot be renewed. The contracts for project assistants may be extended up to 10 or 12 years, depending on their funding source. Funding programs for Postdoctoral Researchers also enable them to apply for funding of their own independent position as part of a grant for a research project.

Belgium

PhD candidates in Belgium can have different types of positions according to the source and type of funding. Working contracts as teaching/research assistants, project assistants (mandaatassistent, wetenschappelijk medewerker, mandat d'assistant) and PhD scholarships (doctoraatsbeurzen, boursier de doctorat) are available. Assistant positions are temporary, the appointment is initially for two years, this period can be extended two times, lasting therefore a maximum of six years (exceptionally one extra year can be granted). Research/teaching assistants have teaching and administrative duties additionally to the work invested in their thesis. Project assistants work in one research project as part of their PhD training, contracts are usually not longer than four years and usually do not involve administrative duties but they are often asked to take on some teaching duties. PhD scholarships are offered by a number of different agencies and programs, and have usually a duration of four years. PhD students receiving a scholarship are mostly dedicated to work on their thesis and need to prepare a PhD research proposal to compete for the scholarship [BE6, BE7, BE8].

Postdoctoral positions have similar arrangements, (teaching/research, project) assistant positions are temporary, contract duration vary from university to university. Postdoctoral fellowships (postdoctoraal onderzoeker, bourses de post-doctorat) are initially for three years and can be renewed once for another three years [BE8, BE9, BE10].

Czechia

PhD candidates in the Czech Republic are students of doctoral programs offered by University-type higher education institutions. Universities can cooperate with other research institutions, in particular with public research institutions assembled in the Czech Academy of Sciences. Depending on the source and type of funding, two forms of PhD studies are possible: full-time and part-time when employed (mostly outside the University).

Funding is provided in one of the following forms:

• Scholarships/grants: the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports allocates state scholarship funds to universities. These funds can be complemented by universities’ proper funds (e.g. stipend funds, or other);
• Employment contracts: they are offered by public research institutions and some universities to encourage students to participate in research or teaching activities. They can be also provided by grant agencies or universities within the project funding for PhD candidates involved in the project implementation.

PhD candidates have all student social and tax benefits [CZ3].

Postdoctoral researcher positions are becoming more and more common in Czech universities and research institutes. They are usually fixed-term (limited from three to four years) and involve research, teaching and supervision of students. Funding schemes for Postdoctoral Researchers are similar to the PhD candidates funding, no tuition fees are charged in any case.

Estonia

Due to the new Higher Education Act, Estonian Universities adopted a new structure of academic positions which is valid since January 2021 [EE2]. According to it, PhD Candidates in Estonia can be employed as teachers (Õpetaja), junior lecturers (Nooremlektor), junior research fellows (Nooremteadur) or officers (for example project assistants/managers). Their duties include teaching, research and performing administrative tasks. Teachers and junior lecturers are financed by the university (teaching finances) and early-stage researchers by universities or by grants. Project assistants are financed by grants and other funds i.e. by research projects they are working on. Employment contracts can be either fixed-term or permanent. State-funded PhD scholarships are also available.

A Postdoctoral Researcher (Research Fellow) is a researcher who has been awarded a Doctorate, or equivalent qualification, in Estonia or in a foreign country, usually no more than five years ago. Postdoctoral Researchers are funded by grants in support of research carried out by them or/and they are employed as research fellows (Teadur), senior research fellows (Vanemteadur) or lecturers (Lektor). Mobilitas Plus grants (European Research Foundation’s finances) are available for foreign postdocs coming to Estonia and research grants funded by the state for Estonian postdocs who are going to foreign countries. Other grants from international fellowship programs are available as well.[Jaak Vilo, personal communication].

France

The employment of PhD Candidates is defined in France by a “doctoral contract” ruled by public law since 2009 [FR2, FR3, FR4]. It consists of a fixed-term contract for a minimum period of three years, which may be extended for a maximum of one year (usually in case of special situations such as maternity/paternity leave, long sick or accident leave, etc). The doctoral contract may define a job where only research and work for the thesis completion are involved, or include other tasks such as teaching, scientific and technical information, development of research, consultancies or expertise to companies or public authorities [FR2, FR3, FR4]. The base salary is slightly higher in the case of a contract involving complementary duties. Salaries paid in research institutes or in projects involving close collaboration with industry can also vary.

Postdoctoral Researchers are employed in fixed-term working contracts (contrats temporaires de chercheur) which vary from one to three years, can be extended, but not surpass six years on the total. Funding for postdoctoral positions come from national, European or international funding agencies or projects developed with Industry.

Germany

PhD Candidates in Germany are typically employed as Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter (research associate) having a fixed-term contract at the institute of their supervisor. The funding comes from the state, National Science Foundation (DFG), EU, ministries on federal or local level, industry, foundations and other sources. Duties include working on research projects, teaching, organizing seminars or performing administrative tasks [GE6, GE7, GE8], depending in part on the source of funding. In general, the working contract is for a period of three years and can be renewed for an additional maximum period of three years. Funding can also be through scholarships provided by DFG, the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation and the Deutsche Akademische Austauschdienst (DAAD) [GE6, GE7, GE8]. Scholarships are usually for no more than 3 years.

Postdoctoral Researchers are also employed as Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter (or alternative names: Mitarbeiter Postdoktorand, Oberassistent, Oberingenieur) and have fixed-term contracts that cannot be extended for more than six years. At entry level salaries are slightly higher than for PhD positions and depend on experience and family status [GE8, GE9]. Funding programs for Postdoctoral Researchers also enable them to apply for funding of their own independent position as part of a grant for a research project. The position can be at a University or an independent research institute, which must provide the necessary basic equipment and facilities for the development of the research project [GE8, GE9].

Greece

PhD candidates in Greece are students of doctoral programs. Funding is provided in one of the following forms:

• Fellowships: several research centres and universities provide fellowships to PhD students. They are also provided by the State Scholarships Foundation (IKY) and by other public and private foundations/agencies, like Onassis Foundation, John S. Latsis Public Benefit Foundation, Bodossaki Foundation, and others (this list is not exhaustive).
• Stipends/grants: the Ministry of Culture, Education and Religious Affairs (and specifically, the General Secretariat for Research and Technology - GSRT) occasionally offers stipends and grants under certain research programs for PhD students (like Hrakleitos) co-funded by the European Union (European Social Fund) and National Resources.
• Employment contracts: employment contracts are offered by several research centres and universities for participation in actions funded by the European Commission and other projects funded by national funds. They are also occasionally provided by GSRT under research programs for cooperative research and innovation (like Thales and Archimedes) as well as under European Commission-funded Actions.

PhD students may also get funding through their participation in working teams of collaboration projects between universities and industry [Panagiota Fatourou, personal communication].

Postdoctoral Researcher positions are becoming more and more common in Greek universities, research and technology centres and institutes. These are fixed term temporary positions dedicated to research (but often involving teaching responsibilities in HEIs). Funding schemes for Postdoctoral Researchers are similar to those mentioned above for PhD candidates [Panagiota Fatourou, personal communication].

Italy

PhD positions in Italy are funded either by national scholarships, through research grants of professors, or through industry funding programs. The contract is normally for three years and salary is fixed, not progressing along the years. Funding for more than three years can in some cases be provided through research grants. PhD Candidates can have teaching and supervision duties additionally to the thesis work, in these cases they earn a slightly higher salary, which depends on the local University rules [IT3; Carlo Ghezzi, personal communication].

Postdoctoral Researchers (Assegnista di Ricerca) are employed in temporary, fixed-term, working contracts for a minimum of one year (usually two years) that can be renewed for a maximum of two additional years. Their duties include research as well teaching and students’ supervision [Carlo Ghezzi, personal communication].

Latvia

PhD Candidates in Latvia are students in doctoral programs and usually receive a scholarship. In some cases, they work as researchers in higher education institutions' projects, or in industry.

Postdoctoral Researcher positions do not exist in Latvia. After receiving a doctor degree those following an academic career (on average 50% tends to go to industry) are immediately eligible to Docents or even Asociēts Profesor positions [Juris Borzovs, personal communication].

Lithuania

PhD candidates in Lithuania are students in doctoral programs and usually receive a scholarship, granted by the State, a Higher Education institution or Foundations for student support. In some cases, doctoral students may be employed as Academic Assistant (Akademinis padėjėjas), Engineer (Inžinierius), Project Analyst (Projekto analitikas), Junior Researcher (Jaunesnysis mokslo darbuotojas), Project Technician (Projekto technikas), Laboratory Assistant (Laborantas), Assistant (Asistentas) in a full-time or part-time position at the different academic departments of the University [Robertas Damaševičius, personal communication]. Their duties may include teaching, research or performing administrative tasks.

A Postdoctoral Researcher is a researcher who has been awarded a Doctor degree, for no more than five years, in a Lithuanian or foreign country higher education institution and who is carrying out the research project typically lasting 24 months. In Lithuania, postdoc positions are usually funded by grants and individual fellowships provided by Lithuania’s Research Council, Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions, Lithuanian Universities and other international funding programs.

Netherlands

PhD Candidates in the Netherlands are typically employed by the university in the rank of Promovendus (PhD Researcher), on a fixed-term contract for three or four years (four years is standard) [NE5, NE6, NE7]. PhD positions are funded almost exclusively by projects from external sources like the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO), the EU, foreign grants, or industry. PhD Candidates carry out their research under supervision of at least one professor and/or senior member in a research group. Progress is monitored. In addition to their research, PhD Candidates normally have a small task in teaching, supervision, or other project-related activities.

Postdoctoral Researchers at entry level are generally appointed to Onderzoeker 4 (Researcher 4) in a temporary, fixed-term contract for up to two years. Postdoctoral Researchers are almost exclusively funded by projects. Depending on the funding, contracts may be renewable, but the total term of the employment, including any subsequent contracts in the same university, should never surpass six years [NE5, NE6, NE7].

The other dedicated or special positions for research or teaching in the Dutch system include those of Docent (Lecturer) and of Onderzoeker (Researcher) and range from Docent 4 (Junior Lecturer) up to Docent 1 (Coordinating Senior Lecturer) and from Onderzoeker 4 (Junior Research Fellow) up to Onderzoeker 1 (Coordinating Senior Researcher). The positions are often temporary but can be tenured. The researcher-positions usually require a PhD, and the lecturer-positions usually require (or lead to) a basic certificate as lecturer [NE5, NE6, NE7].

Poland

Poland adopted a new law on Higher Education and Science which came into force on 1 October 2018 and brought significant changes in the functioning of universities, their financing, and scientific careers. This law replaced the existing documents: the Law on Higher Education, the Law on the Principles of Financing Science, the Law on Academic Degrees and Title, as well as the Law on Student Loans [PL3].

PhD candidates in Poland are students enrolled in doctoral programs offered by academic universities, institutes of the Polish Academy of Science, or other research institutes or international institutes which meet the criteria to award a PhD degree. According to the new law, students enrolled in doctoral programs do not pay fees and receive a fixed monthly scholarship paid by the state. The maximum total period of receiving a doctoral scholarship cannot exceed 4 years [PL2].

Postdoctoral Researchers are typically employed in the position of an assistant (Asystent) or adjunct lecturer (Adiunkt) depending on the field of research and research achievements. In humanities, social science, and in other areas where there are few jobs and many candidates, the postdocs (if any) are employed on the Asystent level. By contrast, in the field of Informatics, postdocs are mainly employed on the Adiunkt level. Normally, the length of the contract is fixed from 1 up to 3 years [Leszek Pacholski, personal communication].

Portugal

PhD candidates in Portugal are students enrolled in doctoral programs offered by traditional university institutions (Universidade) and polytechnic institutions (Politécnico). Until 2018 only traditional universities had rights to award Doctoral (PhD) degrees but in August 2018 a new decree on Degrees has been adopted which now grants polytechnic institutions the right to offer Doctoral degrees as well [PT1]. PhD studies are typically subject to tuition fees of about € 2,750 per year for the full-time study. The specific cost of tuition fees is set annually by the higher education institution and can therefore vary slightly each year [PT4]. International students (from outside the European Union) pay typically twice that value, but special situations may be considered.

To fund their studies, PhD students could get a scholarship from the Portuguese National Science and Technology Foundation (FCT) or from the research units, with a monthly value of € 1,064 (for 2019/2020), set by the Portuguese Government [PT5]. Students who are not able to get scholarship are sometimes supported by research projects in higher education instituions or in research and innovation institutions, but in such cases they typically do part-time PhD studies as they are required to contribute to the project activities, that may or may not overlap with the PhD goals. For the part-time studies, the total length of the program is duplicated and the tuition fees are cut down to 60%. Students normally are able to choose full-time or part-time enrolment in each year. Part-time regime is not possible for students receiving scholarships [Gabriel David, personal communication].

Postdoctoral researchers are typically funded by two mechanisms. The traditional one is the post-doc scholarship [PT4] granted through a national contest, with the monthly amount of € 1,600 [PT5]. Some local contests at the research unit or higher education institution level are also available, following the same regulation. The maximum length of the postdoc scholarship is 6 years. Due to the excessive use of this mechanism, temporary work contracts are being promoted as an alternative by the so-called Scientific Employment Policy [PT6]. Postdocs with temporary work contracts are hired as Junior Researchers (Investigador Júnior) and the length of their contact does not exceed 6 years. The entry level is € 2,134.73 per month (which is subject to taxes).

Romania

PhD Candidates have a fixed term contract with the university for a period of three years, that can be extended for at most two years; afterwards there exists a ‘’grace’’ period of two years. PhD Candidates can receive a doctoral grant, in this case their duties include teaching, research and administrative tasks. Doctoral grants can be funded from the state budget or private funding. PhD candidates are expected to carry out research under the supervision of a professor and an advisory board [Simona Motogna, personal communication].

Postdoc positions in universities are usually funded from research projects and are temporary, usually for three years (except from large research projects that last longer). The research institutes may also employ postdoctoral researchers in permanent research positions [Simona Motogna, personal communication].

Spain

PhD Candidates in Spain are considered both as trainee researchers and university students. The rights of doctoral students as trainee researchers are found in the bases described by the European Charter for Researchers and within the Code of Conduct for the Recruitment of Researchers, of 2005, endorsed by European universities. The position of trainee researcher is regulated in Spain through the Trainee Research Staff Statute of 2006. PhD candidates have fixed-term full time contracts lasting for one year and subject to renewal up to a maximum of four years (six for disabled students). Positions are funded by national scholarships, research grants of professors, or industry funding programs. The most common situation is national funding through Spanish grants such as FPU (Formación de Profesorado Universitario, 4 years) or FPI (Formación de Personal Investigador, 4 years) or regional grants such as Catalan grants (FI – Formació d’investigadors, 3 years). PhD Candidates can have teaching and supervision duties additionally to the thesis work, after the second year [SP2; Núria Castell Ariño, personal communication].

Postdoctoral Researchers (Ayudante Doctor, Investigador Postdoc) are employed in temporary, fixed-term, working contracts for a minimum of one year, the contract can be renewed for a maximum of four additional years. Their duties include research as well teaching and students’ supervision [Núria Castell Ariño, personal communication].

Switzerland

PhD Candidates in Switzerland are typically employed by the universities as Wissenschaftlicher Assistenz I (Research Assistant I). Beyond performing research work leading to their Doctorate and attending a number of courses, PhD Candidates assist their supervisors in teaching and supervising undergraduate students and frequently perform internal tasks in their research groups. Contracts are temporary, renewed annually and with variable duration (in agreement with the group leader), on average three to four years, but never extending more than six years [SW9].

Postdoctoral Researchers are employed by the universities as Wissenschaftlicher Assistenz II (Research Assistant II) or Wissenschaftliche Mitarbeitende I and II (Senior Researchers and Teaching Assistants), depending on their previous experience. Duties include performing own research, teaching and supervision of students and PhD Candidates as well as internal tasks in the research group. The positions are funded by the university institutes themselves or by third parties such as the Swiss National Science Foundation or international funding organizations. Contracts are fixed-term, renewed annually, and with variable duration, on average two and a maximum of six years, in agreement with the group leader [SW10].

UK

PhD Candidates in the UK usually have a stipend. Optionally part-time contracts to help with teaching are also available. In general, these contracts do not surpass fifteen hours per week and most students supplement their stipend with a few hours of teaching a week. Most stipends are awarded for three or three and a half years, depending on the funding scheme. The maximum allowed time varies depending on the University, but in general it is four years. A compelling factor to enforce the maximum four years of PhD is the fact that getting government funded scholarships depends on the majority of the PhD Candidates from the institution completing their PhD in four years or less during the past five years. Funding for PhD positions in the UK are almost always provided by the national government or funding organizations. Grants fund the PhD Candidate’s living expenses and whatever fees the university demands. Some grants are more generous than others regarding expenses for experimental work and the stipend paid to the student. Each funding body has its own restrictions on who is eligible to receive funding, and funds are limited, so PhD positions are competitive in almost all institutions. Funding for PhD Candidates is nearly always awarded to the department or the research supervisor, not the student. Most funding is specific to UK-citizens living in the UK. The UK research council also funds students from EU countries, but the stipend covers only university fees and not living expenses [Jane Hillston, personal communication].

Postdoctoral Researchers in the UK have temporary fixed-term contracts with the universities with the contract duration depending on the funding source. Duties include performing own research, teaching and supervision of Bachelor’s and Master’s students. In case Postdoctoral Researchers are employed by the university for more than three years (even if having more than one single contract) they notionally become “permanent” members of staff. They might still become unemployed when the funding paying their salaries finishes, but in this case the university needs to provide some redundancy compensation. Since 2009 researchers funded by the national government have their employment governed by a scheme called “The Concordat”, which essential gives them various rights like the one to be treated as permanent staff, maternity leave, sickness leave, etc. [Jane Hillston, personal communication]